LOLLIPOP AS A DOSAGE FORM

Lollipops:

       Lollipops are lozenges type of oral solid dosage form with a short stick inserted into it which produces local effect in the mouth.

                 Need for invention:

l  Oral administration of pills, tablets and capsules may have difficult in swallowing due to undesirable taste.

l  Improper swallowing causes choking in pediatric & geriatrics.

l   Production process of them results in loss of medication and effect drug absorption and there by effecting dosage accuracy.

Medicated Lollipops have many applications as follows

ANTI CAVITY LOLLIPOPS

Researches lead a tooth-friendly, ground breaking and enjoyable solution for the dental caries: i.e., Anti cavity lollipops.

Need for Discovery

—  The mechanical treatment may be painful.

—  In extreme cases, the teeth are removed.

—  In young children, extraction may require heavy sedation.

HISTORY

                An UCLA microbiologist Dr.Wenyuan Shi, Ph.D., created an orange colored lollipop infused with extracts of Glycyrrhiza uralensis for the treatment of dental caries.

DENTAL CARIES/ CAVITIES:

     It is an infectious communicable diseases that destroys tooth structure . Thus cavity is formed and a hole is developed.

BACTERIA + SUGAR =ACID + TOOTH = CAVITY

CAVITY CAUSING MICROORGANISM

                UCLA research, found that 700 bacterial kinds colonize the mouth which includes friendly as well as decay causing bacteria. Streptococcus mutants and   Lactobacilli are more active to cause tooth decay by production of lactic acid.

GENERAL TREATMENT 

l     Drilling out the decayed material in the tooth.

l      Filling the resulting space with a filling material.

PREVENTIVE MEASURES

     Oral hygiene

     Fluoride Therapy

     Natural saliva

     Diet

     Antibacterial Therapy(chlorhexidine)

Ingredients:

n  Herbal extracts of Glycyrrhiza uralensis

n  Citric acid

n  Hydogenated starch Hydrolysate (HSH)

n  Natural orange flavours , colors FD & C , yellow#6, Acesulfame pottasium

               

                Mechanism of action:

Streptococcus mutants causes tooth decay by clumping together and sticking to the teeth where they produce a potent acid which aggressively breaks down tooth enamel as the liquorice  lollipops are antibacterial and inhibits the growth and clumping together, sticking to the teeth (Bacteriostatic & bactericidal)

Dose:

    One lollipop in the morning after break fast…

    One lollipop before bed ….for 10 days no more cavities.

   15mg of liquorice powder  -  eliminates 99.9% of bacteria   with in 5-10 min.

Storage :

    Keep package sealed in a cool, dry place.

Advantages:

n  It stimulates saliva flow

n  Resist Streptococcus mutants

n  Long lasting than gum or candy

n  More easy to consumption compared to pills or capsules

n  Targeted to those having trouble in brushing

n  Effective Helicobacter which causes stomach ulcer

n  Effective against strep throat caused by Streptococci

n  Maximum dose is achieved in single dose.

 Adverse effects :

n  At high doses ,it causes : Electrolyte imbalance, Hypertension

ANESTHETIC  LOLLIPOP

                Administration of  Lidocaine as a lollipop is effective for

Endotracheal intubation, Bronchoscopy  and in Endoscopy .

 Gastro intestinal endoscopy:

     Upper endoscopy is to examine the lining of the upper part of GIT to evaluate Symptoms of

                                -  Abdominal pain ,

                                -  Nausea ,

                                  - Bleeding form the upper GIT.

                                - Inflammation ulcer ,

                              - Tumors of the esophagus ,

                               -   Stomach & duodenum .

Administration and withdrawal of lollipop

•          A patient is given with lollipop & drug rapidly enters the patient’s blood stream as it is sucked.

•          When a desired sedation is observed, physician can remove the lollipop.  By changing the placement of lollipop, drug release rate can be retarded.

Preparation

            50g of white sugar-------3ml of liquid solution mixture  ++  300mg Lidocaine Hcl -----small cylindrical container--cooled & solidified--Plenge a plastic stick--Anesthetic lollipop

Advantages over other routes of medication

      Lollipop had less gag reflex & is well tolerated

      It eliminates the need for I.V Sedation

      It has lower rates of adverse effects

      Patient requires less recovery time

      Safe and well tolerated topical anesthetic

      Its effective and preferred in the  elderly

Pre –Anesthetic Lollipop

                                Clonidine  hydrochloride, an   α₂ – adrenoceptor agonist, is an anti- hypertensive drug and introduced as Pre-anesthetic medication due to its Sedative and Analgesic properties. It was prepared into a lollipop through which Pediatric patients were  able to take easily.

    Ingredients:

n  Clonidine hydrochloride

n  Sucrose

n  Starch syrup

     Formulation : 2,3,4,&5g formulations of Clonidine lollipops                                          containing 10mg /g  of Clonidine Hcl.

     Storage: stored at 25’c until administration and was stable at least  2 months under room temperature.

Hemodynamic measurements :Systolic blood pressure (SBP)

                                                             Diastolic blood pressure (DBP)

                                                             Heart rate (HR)

               

n  Plasma Clonidine concentration of 0.3-0.8ng/ml would be sufficient to produce a satisfactory sedation in Pediatric surgery.

n  They can be used safely for pre-operative sedation in the patients aged  4-11years.

Analgesic lollipop

¢  A berry- flavored Fentanyl citrate lollipop or lozenge is useful for treating cancer pain in patients who are opiate tolerant

¢  It is also used to treat general pains such as back and neck pain other than cancer pain.

¢  Fentanyl is used for producing anesthesia and pain relief.

Control release lollipop

                A pharmaceutical preparation , a flavor essence, nontoxic coloring agents are mixed into  a  liquid silicon elastomeric and then cure hardened into the shape of lollipop for control releasing into a users mouth.

                since silicon is permeable, saliva in the mouth permeates  it at a controlled rate.

Lollipop dosage form in other treatments

—  This dosage form can be given for the treatment of cough

—  Lollipop dosage form can be given in hypertensive cases

—  Lollipop dosage form can be given as antianginal agent

Draw backs in usage of lollipop therapy

v   patient may remove  lollipop if he doesn’t like it which  may lead to inadequate dose.

Conclusion

n  Lollipops are oral, solid , lozenges type of dosage form which shows its local effect in mouth.

n  It is ground breaking, tooth friendly and enjoyable solution to pediatrics and geriatrics who refused to take pills tablets and capsules orally.

n  This invention is directed to methods and composition for noninvasive administration of drugs having sedative, analgesic, anesthetic, and anti-cavity effects.

n  Lollipop takes an astonishing use in future as a special dosage form.

    

Pharmaceutical chemistry essentials

TABLES

S.No    Substance                        Colour &State                Taste            Solubility

1.       Sodium acid phosphate      Colour less crystals                              Saline            Freely soluble in water

2.       Sodium bicarbonate           White                            Saline             Freely soluble in H20

3.       Sodium citrate                   Colourless crystals        Saline             Very soluble in boiling H2O

4.       Magnesium sulphate          Colourless                     Saline, Bitter   Freely soluble in H2O

5.       Sodium potassium tartarate Colour less                   Salty               Freely soluble in H2O

                                                    crystals

6.       Sodium sulphate (Na2So4)  White crystalline            Saline, Bitter   Freely soluble in water

7.       Magnesium chloride           Colour less crystals       Bitter              Freely soluble in water

8.       Ferrous sulphate                Pale green or pale          Astringent,      Freely soluble in water,

                                        bluish green                   metallic taste   Very soluble in boiling water

9.       Ferrous gluconate              Yellowish grey               Burnt sugar     Freely soluble in water

10       Potassium iodide               Colourless                     Slight bitter,     Very soluble in water

                                                                                      salty

11.      Aluminium sulphate            White crystalline powder Slight sweet    Freely soluble in water

                                                                                     

12.      Ammonium chloride           Colour less                    Saline             Freely soluble in water

13.      Calamine                          Pink or reddish              Taste less       Insoluble in water, soluble

                                                  brown                                                 in mineral acids

14.      Potassium permanganate   Dark purple with            Sweet and       Soluble in water

                                                  metallic luster                astringent

15.      Silver nitrate                      Colourless crystals        Bitter, metallic Highly soluble in water

16.      Iodine                               Bluish black with           --                    Freely soluble in chloroform

                                                  metallic luster                                      , Carbon tetra chloride, CS2.

17.      Povidone iodine                 Yellowish brown            --                    Soluble in water

                                                  powder

18.      Precipitated sulphur           Pale greenish yellow      Taste less       Completely soluble in CS2

19.      Sublimated sulphur            Yellow colour                 --                    Soluble only to the exact of

                                                                                                            about 80% in CS2

20.      Heavy kaolin                     Whitish or yellowish       Earthy of clay  Insoluble in water

                                                  white                            like                

21.      Light kaolin                        White                            Taste less       Insoluble in water & mineral

                                                                                                            acid

22.      Aluminium hydroxide gel     White                            Tasteless        Soluble in dilute mineral

                                                                                                            acids and in an excess of

                                                                                                            caustic alkali solution

23.      Barium sulphate                 White powder                Tasteless        Insoluble in water

24.      Bentonite                          Pale buff colour             Slightly earthy Insoluble in water but swells

                                                                                                            in to a homogenous mass

25.      Calcium gluconate             White                            Taste less       Freely soluble in boiling

                                                                                                            water 

26.      Calcium hydroxide             White powder                Alkaline and    Soluble in glycerin and in

                                                                                        slightly bitter    aqueous solution of sugars

27.      Calcium lactate                 White powder                Slight or not     Readily soluble in hot water

                                                                                      unpleasent     

28.      Dibasic calcium                 White powder                Tasteless        Insoluble in water, Soluble

          phosphate                                                                                   in Dil.HCl, Dil.HNO3

         

29.      Tribasic calcium phosphate White powder                Tasteless        Insoluble in water, Soluble

  in Dil.HCl, Dil.HNO3

30       Ferrous fumarate               Reddish orange to          Slightly           Slightly soluble in water

    reddish brown powder    astringent

31.      Magnesium trisilicate         White                            Tasteless        Insoluble in water

32.      Potassium bromide            Colourless crystals        Saline and       Soluble in water and glycerin

                                                                                      slightly bitter

33.      Potassium citrate               White granular crystals   Saline             Very soluble in water

34.      Potassium chloride            Colourless crystals        Saline             Freely soluble in water

35.      Sod. Benzoate                   White                            Saline,            Freely soluble in water

36.      Sodium chloride                 Colourless                     Saline             Freely soluble in water

37.      Sod hydroxide                   White sticks                  --                    Freely soluble in water &

  alcohol

38.      Sodium lauryl sulphate       White or pale yellow       --                    Soluble in water

                                                                                      crystals

39.      Sodium meta bisulphite      Colourless                    Acid and saline          Freely soluble in water

40.      Sodium phosphate             Colourless                     --                    Freely soluble in water

         

41.      Sodium salicylate              Colourless                     Sweetish,        Freely soluble in water

    Saline            

42.      Sodium thiosulphate           Colourless crystals        Saline             Very soluble in water

43.      Talc                                  White                            Tasteless        Insoluble in water

44.      Titanium dioxide               White                            Tasteless        Insoluble in water, slowly

  soluble in hot H2SO4

45.      Zinc chloride                      White                            Tasteless        Very soluble in water

46.      Zinc oxide                         White or white               Taste less       Insoluble in water

    yellowish powder

47.      Zinc sterate                       White                            Tasteless        Insoluble in water

48.      Zinc sulphate                     Colourless                     Astringent       Very soluble in water

49.      Zinc undecylenate              White or pale                 --                    Insoluble in water

    yellowish white

Table II

List of synonyms of inorganic medicinal compounds

S.No.   INORGANIC COMPOUND              SYNONYM

1.       Potassium aluminium sulphate          Alum

2.       Ammoniated mercury                       Aminochloride of mercury

3.       Aluminium oxide                              Corundum

4.       Aromatic spirit of ammonia               Spirit of Sal. volatile

5.       Solid carbondioxide                          Dry ice

6.       Antimony sodium tartarate                Tartar emetic

7.       Barium sulphate compound powder   Barium meal, Shadow meal

8.       Borax                                              Sodium tetra borate

9.       Calamine                                        Prepared calamine

10.      Calcium hydroxide                           Slaked lime

11.      Copper sulphate                              Blue vitriol

12.      Aqueous iodine solution                    Lugol’s solution

13.      Aromatic Sulphuric acid                    Elixir of vitriol

14.      Aluminumacetate solution                 Burrow’s solution

15.      Bentonite                                        Soap clay

16.      Compound sod.chloride solution        Ringer’s injection

17.      Chlorinated lime                               Bleaching powder

18.      Calcium carbonate                           Precipitated chalk   

19.      Calcium oxide                                 Quick lime

20.      Chlorinated lime & Boric acid sol.      Eusol

21.      Dried sodium phosphate                   Exsiccated slamber’s salt (or)

                                                                Exsiccated sodium sulphate

22.      Dicalcium phosphate                        Dibasic calcium phosphate

23.      Heavy kaolin                                   China clay

24.      Iron and ammonium citrate               Ferric ammonium citrate

25.      Lead acetate                                   Sugar of lead

26.      Magnesium sulphate                        Epsom salt

27.      Magnesium hydroxide mixture           Milk of magnesia

28.      Mercury with chalk                           Grey Powder

29.      Mercurous Chloride                          Calomel

30.      Potassium iodide                             Kalli idodium

31.      Nitrous oxide                                   Laughing gas

32.      Plaster of Paris                                Gypsum

33.      Potassium acid tartarate                   Potassium hydrogen tartarate

34.      Potassium nitrate                             Indian salt petre

35.      Potassium hydroxide                        Caustic potash

36.      Sodium bicarbonate                         Baking soda

37.      Sodium chloride injection                  Normal saline solution for injection

38.      Sodium hydroxide                            Caustic soda

39.      Sodium nitrate                                 Chile salt petre

40.      Sodium potassium tartarate              Rochelle salt

41.      Sodium sulphate                              Glauber’s salt

42.      Sodium thiosulphate                         Hypo

43.      Sodium metaphosphate                    Madrell’s salt [Graham’s salt ]

44.      Silver nitrate                                    Luhar caustic

45.      Weak solution of iodine                    Iodine tincture

46.      Zinc sulphate                                   White vitriol

47.      Zinc oxide compound paste              Zinc paste

48.      Zinc gelatin                                     Unna’s paste

49.      Ferrous sulphate                              Green vitriol

Table III

S: No Inorganic medicinal           Chemical formula          Medicinal use

          chemical compound

1.     Alum                                   KAl(SO4)2. 12H2O            Astringent, Styptic(Stops bleeding)

2.     Aluminium hydroxide            Al(OH)3                           Antacid

3.     Ammoniated mercury           NH2HgCl                        Local anti-infective

4.     Ammonium chloride             NH4Cl                             Expectorant, Diuretic & Systemic

                                                                                        Acidifier

5.     Antimony potassium            C4H4O7Sbk. ½ H2O         Emetic orally and treatment of Kala-

        tartarate                                                                    azar by I.V

6.     Barium sulphate                   BaSO4                            Radio-opaque contrast media for the

                                                                                        x-ray examination of GIT

7.     Borax                                  Na2B4O7. 10H2O              Antibacterial

8.     Boric acid                            H3BO3                            Local anti-infective

9.     Calcium carbonate               CaCO3                            Non-systemic antacid

10.    Calcium chloride                  CaCl2                             Electrolyte replenisher

11.    Calcium gluconate               C12H22O14Ca.H2O            Calcium replenisher

12.    Chlorinated lime                   CaOCl2                           Electrolyte replenisher

13.    Dicalcium phosphate            CaHPO4. 2H2O               Source of calcium, phosphorus and

                                                                                        diluent in tablets. 

14.    Ferrous sulphate                  FeSo4. 7H2O                   Haematinic

15.    Hydrogen peroxide               H2O2                               Oxidising agent

16.    Light kaolin                          Al2O3.2SiO2. 2H2O           Adsorbent (GIT infections)

17.    Magnesium hydroxide          Mg (OH)2                        Antacid and laxative

18.    Magnesium oxide                 MgO                               Antacid

19.    Magnesium sulphate            MgSo4. 7H2O                  Saline cathartic and sedative by I.V/ I.M 

                                                                                                                    

20.    Magnesium trisilicate           2MgO. 3SiO2. XH2O        Antacid

21     Mercurous chloride               HgCl                               Cathartic

22.    Nitrous oxide                       N2O                                General anaesthetic

23.    Phosphoric acid                   H3PO4                            Pharmaceutical aid

24.    Plaster of Paris                    CaSO4. ½ H2O                For making bandages, surgical aid.

25.    Potassium chloride              Kcl                                 Electrolyte replenisher

26.    Potassium citrate                 C6H5K3O7. H2O               Systemic alkaliser

27.    Potassium iodide                 KI                                   Expectorant

28.    Potassium permanganate     KMno4                            Antiseptic, oxidising agent

29.    Selenium sulphide                SeS2                               Antidandruff

30.    Silver nitrate                        AgNO3                            Antibacterial

31.    Sodium acetate                   CH3COONa. 3H2O          Preparation of peritoneal dialysis fluid

32.    Sodium benzoate                 C6H5COONa                   preservative

33.    Sodium bicarbonate             NaHCO3                         Systemic antacid

34.    Sodium carbonate                Na2CO3                          Pharmaceutical aid

35.    Sodium chloride                   NaCl                               Electrolyte replenisher

36.    Sodium dihydrogen

        phosphate                           C6H5Na3O7. 2H2O           Urinary acidifier

37.    Sodium fluoride.                   NaF                                To prevent dental caries

38.    Sodium hydroxide                NaOH                             Pharmaceutical aid

39.    Sodium metabisulphite         Na2S2O5                         Antioxidant

40.    Sodium nitrite                      NaNO2                            Antidote in cyanide poisoning

41.    Sodium potassium tartarate  C4H4KNaO6. 4H2O          Saline cathartic

42.    Sodium thiosulphate             Na2S2O3. 5H2O               Antidote in cyanide poisoning

       

43.    Stannous fluoride                 SnF2                               Prevention dental caries

44.    Strontium chloride                SrCl2                              Desensitizing agent in tooth preparations.

45.    Talc                                    3MgO.4SiO2.H2O             Glidant in tablets, filter medium and

                                                                                        used in dusting powders.  

46.    Titanium dioxide                  TiO2                                Topical protective, opacity agent

47.    Yellow mercuric oxide          HgO                               Local antibacterial

48.    Zinc chloride                        ZnCl2                              Pharmaceutical aid

49.    Zinc oxide                           ZnO                                Mild astringent

50.    Zinc sterate                         (C17H35COO)2 Zn             Lubricant

51.    Zinc sulphate                       ZnSo4.7H2O                    Astringent & Anti septic

Table-IV

Solubilities

          Descriptive phase                Volume of solvent dissolving in

                                                      part of solvent

      Very soluble                          Less than one part

      Freely soluble                        1 to 10 parts

      Soluble                                 10 to 30 parts

      Sparingly soluble                   30 to 100 parts

      Slightly soluble                      100 to 1000 parts

      Very slightly soluble               1000 to 10,000 parts

Table V

Classification of solvents

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                       S.No  Solvent                    Definition                                                     Examples

1.   Protophilic                 A solvent that is capable of accepting protons  Acetone, Ether,

                                      from the solute                                              Liquid ammonia.

2.   Protogenic                 A solvent that is capable of donating protons.  Formic acid, Acetic acid,   

                                                                                                          Sulphuric acid, Hydrochloric

                                                                                                          acid               

3.   Amphiprotic               A solvent that is capable of donating as well    Water, Alcohol

                                      as accepting protons

4.   Aprotic                      A solvent that neither accept nor donate          Hydrocarbons

                                      protons                                                        

Table VI

S.No Limit test                                        Principles

1.   Limit test for chlorides                      It is based on the formation of the opalescence due to inter

                                                            reaction of chlorides present in the substance with silver

                                                            nitrate in presence of nitric acid and it is compared with a

                                                            standard opalescence produced by definite amount of

                                                            chlorides (NaCl )

2.   Limit test for sulphates                     It is based on the formation of turbidity due to interaction of

                                                            sulphates present in substance with barium chloride in

                                                            presence of hydrochloric acid, and it is compared with a

                                                            standard turbidity produced by definite amount of sulphates

                                                            (K2SO4)                                 

3.   Limit test for Iron                             It is based on the formation of purple colour due to the

                                                            interaction of thioglycollic acid with iron in the presence

                                                            of citric acid and in ammonical alkaline medium. It is

                                                            compared with standard purple colour produced by definite

                                                            amount of iron.

4.   Limit test for Lead                            It is based on the violet colour produced in chloroform due

                                                            to the reaction between lead impurity and dithizone which

                                                            results in the formation of lead dithizonate. The intensity of

                                                            final violet colour produced in the chloroform medium is

                                                            compared with standard.

5.   Limit test for Arsenic (Gutzeit Test)   It is based on the formation of yellow stain on mercuric

                                                            chloride paper by arsine gas which is produced by

                                                            reduction of arsenic compound with zinc and HCl in the

                                                            presence of potassium iodide. The yellow stain is compared

                                                            with standard.

6.   Limit test for heavy metals               It is based on the reaction between Hydrogen sulphide and

      (Lead, Antimony, Bismuth, Tin & Cobalt)                                              heavy metals in an acidic medium to produce the metal

                                                            sulphides (Brown colour). It is compared with standard

                                                            containing definite quantity of lead nitrate.

Table VII

S.No  Limit tests                        Reagent                           Use

1.   Limit test for chlorides        Nitric acid                         Prevent opalescence being caused due to

                                                                                      silver carbonates or CO2 or alkaline

                                                                                      impurities

2.   Limit test for sulphates       Barium sulphate reagent:

                                              a) Barium chloride              To produce turbidity

                                             

                                              b) Potassium sulphate        Increases sensitivity of the test by giving

                                                                                      ionic concentration in the reagents which

                                                                                      just exceeds the solubility of BaSo4 

3.   Limit test for iron                i) Thioglycollic acid            Strong reducing agent which reduces

                                                                                      ferric to ferrous and produce purple colour

                                              ii) Citric acid                      Prevents precipitation of iron with

                                                                                      ammonia

4.   Limit test for arsenic          Potassium iodide               Helps in the reduction of pentavalent

      (Modified Gutziet Test)                                               arsenic acid into trivalent arsenic acid 

                                              Granulated zinc                 Produces steady evaluation nascent

                                                                                      hydrogen

                                              Stannous chloride              Reducing agent

Table VIII                                                            Assays   

S.No  Chemical compound        Method (titration)              Principle (By titration with standard

                                                                                          solution)

1.   Boric acid                      Acid-base                              Sodium hydroxide using phenolphthalein

                                                                                      as indicator. Glycerin is added to convert

                                                                                      boric acid into strong acid

2.   Sodium bicarbonate       Acid-base                              Standard solution of hydrochloric acid

                                                                                      using methyl orange solution as an

                                                                                      indicator

3.   Ammonium chloride       Acid-base                              Sodium hydroxide using phenolphthalein

                                                                                      as an indicator

4.   Calcium gluconate         Complexometric titration         M/20 disodium edetate using mordant

                                                                                      black-II mixture as an indicator

5.   Calcium lactate             Complexometric titration         M/20 disodium edetate using mordant

                                                                                      black-II mixture as an indicator

6.   Magnesium sulphate      Complexometric titration         Disodium edetate using mordant black-II

                                                                                      mixture as an indicator

7.     Zinc sulphate                       Complexometric titration               Disodium edetate using Xylenol orange

                                                                                                                   as an indicator

8.     Ferrous gluconate               Oxidation-reduction                       Cerric ammonium sulphate using ferroin

                                                                                                                   sulphate solution as an indicator   

9.     Ferrous sulphate                 Oxidation-reduction                       Cerric ammonium sulphate using ferroin

                                                                                                                   sulphate solution as an indicator   

10.  Hydrogen peroxide             Oxidation-reduction                       Potassium permanganate solution in

                                                                                                                   presence of sulphuric acid

11.  Chlorinated lime                  Oxidation-reduction                       Sodium thiosulphate using starch

                                                        (Iodometry)                                      mucilage as an indicator

12.  Potassium permanganate Oxidation-reduction                       By using oxalic acid solution, which is

                                                                                                                   titrated with pot. permanganate solution

                                                                                                                   which is a self indicator.

13.  Iodine                                     Iodometry                                         Sodium thiosulphate using starch

                                                                                                                   mucilage as an indicator

14.  Copper sulphate                  Iodometry                                         Sodium thiosulphate using starch

                                                                                                                   mucilage as an indicator

15.  Sodium chloride                  Volhard’s method                           Ammonium thiocyanate using ferric

                                                                                                                   ammonium sulphate as an indicator.

16.  Yellow mercuric oxide        Thiocyanate method                     Ammonium thiocyanate using ferric alum

                                                                                                                   as an indicator

Table IX

S.No  Method of titration                                Example of compounds assayed

1.   Acid-alkali method                                 Ammonium chloride

2.   Complexo metric titration                        Calcium gluconate, Magnesium sulphate and zinc

                                                                  sulphate 

3.   Non-aqueous titrations                           Sodium citrate, Potassium citrate and sodium acetate

4.   Gravimetric method                                Barium sulphate, Magnesium trisilicate and disodium

                                                                  auro-thiomalate

5.   Precipitation titrations                             Silver nitrate, Sodium chloride and potassium chloride

6.   Oxidation-Reduction method

      a) Permanganometry                              Potassium permanganate and Hydrogen peroxide

      b) Iodometry                                          Iodine, Copper sulphate, Chlorinated lime and sodium

                                                                  thiosulphate

      c) Cerimetry                                          Ferrous gluconate and ferrous sulphate

Table X                          Pharmaceutical analytical techniques

S.No  Method                         Description                                            Examples

1.   Spectral method            Based on the use of light absorbtion         Visible spectroscopy,

                                          (or) emission characteristics of drugs        Ultraviolet spectroscopy

                                                                                                             Flourimetry, Nephlometry,

                                                                                                             Infra red spectro metry,

                                                                                                             NMR spectro scopes,

                                                                                                             ESR spectroscopy,

                                                                                                             Mass spectroscopy

2.   Chromatographic method  Based on the use of affinity(or)partition   Thin layer chromatography,

                                          co-efficiant differences between drugs      Paper chromatography,                                                                                                  Gas chromatography,

                                                                                                                    Ion exchange chromatography,

                                                                                                        Column chromatography,

                                                                                                        High pressure liquid

                                                                                                        chromatography

3.     Electro analytical           Based on the use of electro chemical      Potentiometry,

techniques                     property of drugs.                                               Conductometry,

Polarography, Amperometry,

Paper electrophoresis etc.

                            

    4.     Biological and                Based on the use of either animals(or)     Biological assay of some            Microbiological methods micro-organisms for analysis.                Vitamins microbiological

assay of antibiotics and

vitamins.

5.     Radioactive methods     Based on the radio immuno assay and   

related techniques.                                

6.     Physical methods          Based on the use of measure some        Differential Thermal Analysis,

physical characteristics of drugs             (DTA)

Differential Scanning

Calorimetry, (DSC)

Thermo Mechanical Analysis,

(TMA)

Thermo Gravimetric Analysis.
(TGA)

7.     Miscellaneous               Like conventional titrimetric methods,     

techniques                    Polarimetric methods 

       

Table XI                                 Physical properties used for analysis

S.No  Physical property measured       Instrumental methods based on measurement of property

1.     Absorbtion of radiation                          Spectrophotometry (X-ray, U.V, visible I.R) Calorimetry,

                                                                           Atomic absorbtion, Nuclear magnetic resonance and

                                                        electron spin resonance spectroscopy.

2.   Emission of radiation                    Emission spectroscopy (X-ray, U.V, visible) Flame photometry,

                                                        Fluorescence (X-ray, U.V, visible), Radio chemical methods

3.   Scattering of radiation                  Turbidimetry, Nephelometry, Raman spectroscopy,

4.   Refraction of radiation                  Refractometry, Interfero metry,

5.   Diffraction of radiation                  X-ray, Electror defraction methods

6.   Rotation of radiation                     Polarimetry, Optical rotatory dispersion and circular dichroism

7.   Electrical potential                       Potentio metry, chrono potensiometry

8.   Electrical conductance                 Conductivity

9.   Electrical current                          Polargraphy, Amperometric titrations

10.  Quantity of electricity                   Coulometry

11.  Mass-to-charge ratio                    Mass spectrometry

12.  Thermal properties                       Thermal conductivity and enthalpy methods

Table XII                                              Hardness of water

S.No  Type of water                     Due to the presence of                     Removal methods       

1.   Temporary hardness of         Bicarbonates of calcium and               1. Boiling

      water (Carbonate hardness)  magnesium                                       2. Clarke’s process (milk of lime)

2.   Permanent hardness of water Chlorides and sulphates of calcium and 1. Gan’s permutit process

        (Non-carbonate hardness)        magnesium                                                         (zeolytes)

                                                                                                        2. Calgon process (sodium

                                                                                                            hexameta phosphate)

                                                                                                                                           3. Ion exchange method   

PHARMACOPEIAS                                                      Editions of I.P

1.   I.P= Indian Pharmacopeia                                        First edition I.P= 1955

2.   B.P=British Pharmacopeia                                        Second edition of I.P=1966

3.   B.P.C= British pharmaceutical codex                                    Third edition of I.P=1985

4.   N.F=National formulary                                            Fourth edition of I.P=1996 (Latest edition)

5.   U.S.P= United states Pharmacopeia

6.   E.P=European Pharmacopeia

LIST OF PHARMACOPEIAS

1.       Indian Pharmacopeia(I.P)                                         9. Pharmaceutical codex

2.       British Pharmacopeia(B.P)                                        10. Merck index

3.       British pharmaceutical codex(B.P.C)                         11. British national formulary      

4.       National formulary(N.F)                                            12. United states national formulary       

5.       United states Pharmacopeia(U.S.P)                          13. United states Dispensatory  

6.       European Pharmacopeia(E.P)                                   14. Indian pharmaceutical codex

7.       International Pharmacopoeia                                     15. Mrtindale extra Pharmacopoeia

8.       Japanese Pharmacopoeia

Definitions:

Arhenious theory:

    i) Acid: Generates [H+] ion in solution

    ii) Base: Generates [OH-] ion in solution

          Eq: Acid+Base                       Salt+ Water

         Eg: HCl+NaOH                        NaCl +H2O

Bronsted-Lowery theory:

    i) Acid: Any thing that donates a H+

       (Proton donar)

    ii) Base: Any thing that accepts a H+.

        (Proton acceptor)

          Eq: Acid+Base                         Acid+Base                         

         Eg: HNO2+ H2O                        NO2+ H3O+

               [Acid]   [Base] 

Lewis theory:

Acid: Accepts an electron pair.

Base: Donates an electron pair

Strong acids: These acids completely ionize in solution, so they are always represented in chemical equation in their ionised form.

 Eg: H2So4, Hno3, HClo3, HCl, Hbr, HF

Strength of few acids in decreasing order:

HClo4>HBr>H2So4>HCl>HNo3

Weak acids: These acids partially ionize in solution so they are always represented in chemical equation in their ionized form.

Strong bases: These bases completely ionize in solution and are always represented in their ionized form in chemical equations.

Eg: NaOH, LiOH, KOH, RbOH, Ca(OH)2, Sr(OH)2

pH: It is defined as the negative logarithm of the concentration of hydrogen ion[H+] or [H3o+] in solution

pH=-log10 [H+] or log1/[H+]

·     If hydrogen ion concentration is one molar the pH becomes “0”.

·     If hydroxyl ion concentration is one molar the pH becomes 14.

·      The pH 0-7 is acidic and 7-14 is basic

pH=-log [H3O+]

pH+poH= pKW (Where pKW=14)

                        pOH=pKW-pH

Henderson’s equation: The pH of an acid or base buffer solution can be calculated by the use of Henderson’s equation

            pH=pKa+log [base/acid]

Buffer: Solution which resists any change in its pH value on dilution or on addition of small quantity of an acid or alkali.

Buffer action: The process by which added H⁺ and OH- ions are removed so that pH remains constant is known as buffer action.

Acidic buffer solution: It consist of weak acid and its salt with a strong base

                        Eg: CH3COOH+ CH3COONa

Basic buffer solution: It consists of a weak base and its salt with a strong acid

                        Eg: NH4OH+ NH4Cl

Buffer capacity Ø: The buffer capacity of a buffer solution is defined as the number of mole of a strong acid or a strong base required to change the pH of one litre of a buffer by one unit.

Buffer capacity (Ø) =

Number of moles of acid/ Base added to the one litre of the solution

Change in pH

Hard water: Which doesn’t stable lather

readily with soap solution is called hard water.

                       

Soft water: Which gives stable lather readily with soap solution is called soft water.

Radio activity: The emission of alpha, beta or gamma particles due to nuclear decay is called radioactivity.

Bequerel(BQ): it is the unit for the rate of decay   

                        BQ=1Decay/second

Isotopes: The nuclides of the same element having different mass number are called isotopes.

           Their chemical properties are similar but differ in their physical and radio active properties

Radioactive isotopes: The isotopes which emit radiations are called radioactive isotopes.

Iso bars: The nuclides of different elements with the same mass numbers and different atomic numbers are called isobars.

                 Isobars will have different physical as well as chemical and radioactive properties.

Curie(Ci): It is the unit representing the rate of decay and is equal to 3.7X10¹⁰ disintegrations /sec  

                        1Ci=3.7X10¹⁰ Bq

Rad: It is the unit of absorbed dose

                        1Rad=10^-2 JKg ^-1

Roentgen(R): It is the unit of exposure

                        1R=2.58X10^-4CKg ^-1

Red Equivalent Man:(REM) It is the unit of dose equivalent

            Dose in REM=Dose in Rads X Quality

factor X Distribution factor           

Half life of Radio Pharmaceuticals

i) Physical half life (Tp): The amount of time

necessary for the radio active atoms to decay to one half their original number.

Biological half life (Tb): The amount of time required for the body to metabolize or eliminate one of the administered dose of any substance through biological process.

Effective half life (Te): The time required for an administered radiopharmaceutical dose to be reduced by one of due to both physical and biological decay mechanisms

           

Te=Tp+Tb / TpXTb

Where   Te= Effective half life

            Tp= Physical half life

            Tb=Biological half life    

Molarity(M): 1gm molecular weight of solute dissolves in 1000ml of solution.

Molality(m): 1gm molecular weight of solute dissolve in 1000gms of solution.

Normality(N): 1gm of equivalent weight of solute dissolves in 1000ml of solution.

Mole fraction(X): The ratio of the moles of one constituent of a solution to the total moles of all constituents.

Oxidation: Loss of electrons (gain in positive charge)

Reduction: Gain of electrons (gain in negative charge)

Cations: Positively charged ions, attracted to the negative electrode, cathode.

Anions: Negatively charged ions, attracted to the positive electrode, anode.